42 topics
Future continuous = action in progress at a future point. Future perfect = action completed before a future point. Future perfect continuous = duration up to a future point.
Describes something that was future from a past viewpoint. Use "would", "was/were going to", or past continuous.
"Be about to" = very soon. "Be due to" = scheduled. "Be likely to" = probably will.
"Needn't / don't need to" = no obligation now. "Didn't need to" = the obligation did not exist (action may not have happened). "Needn't have" = action happened but was unnecessary.
"Must have done" = certain it happened. "Might / could have done" = possible past. "Can't have done" = certain not. "Should have done" = criticism for missing action.
likely, unlikely, bound to, definitely, probably, certain to, sure to - all express different degrees of confidence about the future.
Combine if-clause and result-clause from different conditional types when the time references differ.
Use unless, even if, provided (that), as long as, supposing, in case, on condition that to vary conditional meaning.
In formal English, drop "if" and invert: "Had I known...", "Were I to leave...", "Should you need help...".
"I wish + past simple" = present wish. "I wish + past perfect" = regret about past. "I wish + would" = annoyance about behaviour.
After "it's time", "would rather", "as if / as though" we often use past forms with present meaning to signal that the situation is hypothetical.
Form the passive in perfect, continuous, and modal structures: has been done, is being done, will have been done, must be done.
Use "It is said that..." or "Subject + is said/believed/thought + to-infinitive" to report rumours and general opinions formally.
Use this causative structure when someone else does the action for you. Form: have/get + object + past participle.
being done (passive -ing), to be done (passive infinitive), having been done (perfect passive -ing) - used to keep the focus on the receiver of the action.
Each reporting verb has its own pattern. Memorize them: admit (doing/that), deny (doing), suggest (doing/that), refuse (to do), persuade (someone to do), warn (someone about/not to do).
Beyond the basic forms: to have done (perfect infinitive), to be doing (continuous infinitive), having done (perfect -ing).
Some verbs need specific structures: persuade someone to do, prevent someone from doing, accuse someone of doing, blame someone for doing.
Generic reference: "the + singular" (the tiger = species), "a + singular" (a tiger = any one), zero article + plural (tigers = in general). Subtle differences matter in academic writing.
No article with most countries, cities, lakes, single mountains. "The" with plurals (the Netherlands, the Alps), rivers, seas, oceans, deserts, hotels, museums.
Notice the difference between "few" (almost none) and "a few" (some), "little" and "a little". Plenty of, a great deal of, the majority of are used in more formal contexts.
These words mean "any" + matching wh-word: whatever = anything that, whenever = any time that, etc. They form noun clauses or concessive clauses.
"One" is formal and impersonal. "You" is the common generic pronoun in spoken English. "They" is used for unspecified people in authority.
English builds compact noun phrases by stacking nouns: traffic light, government policy reform proposal. The last noun is the head.
Use 's with periods of time: a day's work, two weeks' notice, an hour's drive.
Formal writing prefers nouns over verbs: instead of "we decided" use "our decision was". This packs more information into noun phrases.
Drop "who/which + be" before -ing or -ed forms. "The man (who is) waiting outside is my brother."
Use -ing, -ed, or perfect participles to compress two clauses into one. The participle's subject must match the main clause's subject.
Structure: "The + comparative..., the + comparative...". Shows a parallel relationship between two changing variables.
Gradable adjectives accept "very" (very cold, very tired). Non-gradable (absolute) adjectives need "absolutely / completely" (absolutely freezing, completely exhausted).
Watch out: "Very perfect" sounds odd; use "absolutely perfect" instead.
Comment adverbs (frankly, honestly, surprisingly, fortunately) usually open the sentence and reflect the speaker's attitude.
Words like however, moreover, nevertheless, in addition, on the other hand, as a result connect ideas across sentences in formal writing.
After negative or restrictive adverbials at the start of a sentence (never, rarely, hardly, no sooner, not only, under no circumstances), invert subject and auxiliary.
Used for emphasis. "It was John who broke the vase." "What I need is a holiday."
Move a phrase to the front for emphasis or contrast. Word order may shift to keep the sentence balanced.
Add the auxiliary "do/does/did" to plain verbs for emphasis: "I do understand", "She did call".
Avoid repetition by leaving words out (ellipsis) or replacing them ("do so", "one", "so"). Common in speech and natural writing.
Sentences often start with "it" or "there" to delay the real subject. "It is important to listen." "There is something I need to tell you."
Formal: passive voice, nominalisation, modals like "may", full forms. Informal: phrasal verbs, contractions, "get" passives, looser structures.
Soften claims with may, might, could, tend to, appear, seem, suggest, possibly, perhaps, somewhat - essential in academic and diplomatic writing.
Subjunctive uses the base verb after verbs of demand/suggestion: "It is essential that he be informed." Common in formal American English and fixed phrases ("So be it").
Combine clauses with subordinators, relative clauses, participles, and noun phrases to express dense ideas in fewer words - the hallmark of advanced English.
Read bilingual short stories and notice these structures in real sentences.
